India’s economic liberalization in 1991 was a comprehensive stabilization-and-reform program launched amid a balance-of-payments crisis, orchestrated by Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao and Finance Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh, that dismantled the “License Raj,” devalued the rupee, opened trade and investment, and reoriented the economy toward market-led growth through the New Industrial Policy (24 July 1991)
Operation Blue Star was a June 1984 Indian Army operation ordered by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi to remove Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale and armed separatists from the Golden Temple complex in Amritsar; the assault caused heavy casualties and serious damage, particularly to the Akal Takht, and deeply shocked Sikhs in India and abroad. In retaliation for
The Emergency was a 21‑month period from 25 June 1975 to 21 March 1977 during which Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, through a presidential proclamation under Article 352 citing “internal disturbance,” imposed a nationwide state of emergency that suspended civil liberties, censored the press, and enabled rule by decree; most opposition leaders were jailed and elections
India conducted its first nuclear test—code-named Smiling Buddha (MEA designation: Pokhran-I)—on 18 May 1974 at the Indian Army’s Pokhran Test Range in Rajasthan, declaring it a “peaceful nuclear explosion” and becoming the first country outside the UN Security Council’s P5 to detonate a nuclear device. The underground fission test, carried out under intense secrecy and
The Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 was a 13-day conflict from 3–16 December 1971 that culminated in the surrender of Pakistan’s Eastern Command in Dhaka and the creation of the independent state of Bangladesh, following months of the Bangladesh Liberation War and a humanitarian crisis triggered by Pakistan’s March 1971 crackdown in East Pakistan. Hostilities formally
On 19 July 1969, the Government of India nationalized 14 of the country’s largest private commercial banks via the Banking Companies (Acquisition and Transfer of Undertakings) Ordinance, 1969, a transformative move announced by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi to align banking with national development goals, expand financial inclusion, and curb concentration of credit in private hands.
The Green Revolution in India refers to the rapid adoption of high‑yielding varieties (HYV) of wheat and rice, alongside expanded irrigation, synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, credit, and procurement support that transformed foodgrain production beginning in the mid‑1960s, with breakthrough seasons from 1966 onward in Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh. Spearheaded nationally by M.S. Swaminathan in
The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 erupted after Pakistan’s August infiltration into Jammu & Kashmir (Operation Gibraltar), escalated into large-scale conventional fighting across the international border in early September, and ended in a UN-brokered ceasefire on 22–23 September 1965, followed by the Soviet-mediated Tashkent Declaration on 10 January 1966 that restored pre-war positions and prisoners of war. It is widely assessed as a military stalemate that imposed heavy costs on both sides and reshaped subsequent diplomacy and force planning.
The Sino-Indian War erupted on 20 October 1962 with simultaneous Chinese offensives in the western sector (Aksai Chin, Ladakh) and the eastern sector (then North-East Frontier Agency, NEFA; today Arunachal Pradesh), and concluded after China declared a unilateral ceasefire on 20–21 November 1962, retaining control of Aksai Chin and withdrawing in the east to positions
India’s Constitution was adopted by the Constituent Assembly on 26 November 1949 and came into effect on 26 January 1950, transforming India from a British dominion into a sovereign democratic republic and replacing the Government of India Act, 1935 as the country’s supreme law. The choice of 26 January honored the Indian National Congress’s 1930
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