Introduction
The Jallianwala Bagh massacre, also known as the Amritsar massacre, occurred on 13 April 1919, when troops under Brigadier-General Reginald Edward Harry Dyer opened fire without warning on a large, unarmed crowd gathered inside Jallianwala Bagh, an enclosed garden near the Golden Temple in Amritsar, Punjab. The firing lasted around 10–15 minutes, expending roughly 1,650 rounds, and ended only when ammunition was nearly exhausted, leaving hundreds dead and over a thousand wounded according to official tallies, with many higher contemporary estimates.
Background: Rowlatt Act, Punjab unrest, and Baisakhi
- After World War I, instead of easing wartime emergency laws, the colonial government extended repressive powers through the Rowlatt Acts (1919), provoking widespread anger and protests, particularly in Punjab.
- In Amritsar, the arrest and deportation of local leaders Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr. Satyapal on 10 April triggered violence, including attacks on European residents and public buildings, prompting a military crackdown under Dyer and a ban on public gatherings.
- The Baisakhi festival on 13 April drew thousands from surrounding villages to Amritsar; many congregated in Jallianwala Bagh, a roughly 6–7 acre walled space with narrow exits that had long served as a local meeting ground.
The site and the crowd
- Jallianwala Bagh was enclosed on most sides by 10-foot walls, with five narrow entrances (some with gates), and contained a large well near the center; on Baisakhi afternoon, men, women, and children gathered there for protest and festivity.
- A curfew and meeting ban had been proclaimed earlier in the day, but dissemination was uneven; many villagers were unaware or did not perceive the gathering as unlawful amid festival observances.
The massacre: 13 April 1919
- Informed of the meeting, Dyer moved to Jallianwala Bagh with troops—Gurkha and Sikh companies of the British Indian Army—blocked the main exit, and, without issuing a warning or attempt to disperse, ordered firing into the densest parts of the crowd.
- The troops fired approximately 1,650 rounds over 10–15 minutes, stopping only when ammunition was nearly depleted; panicked people were shot while fleeing and some leapt into the well to escape.
- Dyer then withdrew, leaving the dead and wounded; because of an evening curfew, many injured could not receive timely medical attention, worsening the toll.
Casualties and contested numbers
- The official figure widely cited from the time records 379 dead and about 1,200 wounded.
- Other contemporary estimates and later inquiries suggest higher fatalities: local officials at points cited ~291–500, while Indian leaders and later syntheses propose 1,000–1,500+ deaths with over 1,200 injured.
Immediate aftermath: martial law and repression
- Within two days, martial law was imposed across multiple Punjab districts, including Amritsar, Lahore, Gujranwala, Gujarat, and Lyallpur, intensifying punitive controls and collective punishments.
- The brutality shocked India and the world; Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood, and the episode catalyzed a profound loss of faith among Indians in British intentions, setting the stage for nationwide noncooperation in 1920–22.
Hunter Commission and Dyer’s fate
- The Government of India appointed the Disorders Inquiry Committee (Hunter Commission) to investigate events in Punjab, including the Amritsar massacre; its proceedings and conclusions, while critical of Dyer’s actions, were seen in India as inadequate and evasive.
- In Britain, a House of Commons debate saw Winston Churchill denounce the massacre as “monstrous,” and MPs later voted overwhelmingly against Dyer; however, he also received support from sections of British society, underscoring deep divisions over imperial policy.
- Dyer ultimately left the army; he remained a hero to some imperial loyalists and an emblem of colonial brutality to much of India and many in Britain.
Why it happened: coercion logic and structural factors
- The extension of wartime repression via the Rowlatt Acts created a tinderbox in Punjab, where nationalist mobilization and economic hardship had intensified; arrests on 10 April sparked retaliatory violence, to which the military responded with collective punishment.
- Dyer’s decision to “make a wide impression” by firing without warning in a confined space reflected a coercive doctrine aimed at deterrence rather than crowd control, violating principles of minimum necessary force and precipitating mass casualties.
- The physical layout—walled enclosure, narrow exits, and a dense holiday crowd—made escape difficult once firing commenced, multiplying fatalities.
National and historical significance
- Jallianwala Bagh became a moral watershed: the spectacle of indiscriminate killing of unarmed civilians, including women and children, and the denial of relief broke the remaining credibility of British rule for many Indians.
- The massacre galvanized a new phase of anti-colonial politics, channeling outrage into organized, nationwide noncooperation under Gandhi beginning in 1920, and etched Amritsar into global memory as a symbol of colonial atrocity.
- A century later, Britain has expressed “deep regret,” but no formal state apology has been issued, keeping the episode an enduring point of historical contention and diplomatic sensitivity.
Key figures
- Brig.-Gen. Reginald E.H. Dyer: commanding officer who ordered the firing; later condemned in Britain’s Parliament and compelled to leave the army, yet lauded by some imperial supporters.
- Saifuddin Kitchlew and Satyapal: Amritsar leaders whose arrest on 10 April helped prompt the 13 April gathering in the Bagh.
- Rabindranath Tagore: renounced his knighthood in protest, capturing the moral revulsion felt by many across India.
Key dates and facts
- 10 April 1919: Arrest and deportation of Kitchlew and Satyapal; violence in Amritsar; military brought in under Dyer.
- 13 April 1919 (Baisakhi): Dyer’s troops fire without warning in Jallianwala Bagh for about 10–15 minutes, expending ~1,650 rounds.
- Casualties: official 379 dead and ~1,200 wounded; several other estimates range up to 1,500+ deaths.
- 15 April onward: Martial law enforced in multiple Punjab districts.
- 1919–1920: Hunter Commission inquiry; British parliamentary censure of Dyer; widening Indian outrage leading to noncooperation.
Interesting facts
- Many victims died by jumping into the Bagh’s well to escape gunfire; the well remains a stark memorial feature at the site.
- Contemporary accounts record that Dyer directed fire at the most crowded sections and toward exits to maximize “moral effect,” an approach later condemned as indiscriminate and disproportionate.
- The garden’s enclosure and narrow approaches turned the site into a deadly trap once firing began, explaining the unusually high lethality compared with typical crowd dispersals.
Legacy
Jallianwala Bagh stands as a defining episode of India’s freedom struggle, crystallizing a turn from petition and constitutionalism toward mass, nonviolent resistance against an empire whose coercive underpinnings were laid bare in a single afternoon of gunfire inside a walled garden. The site in Amritsar is preserved as a national memorial to the victims and a reminder of the human cost of colonial rule.
